鑽石舞台

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編輯|巴斯少年

社會退縮是否抑制了個體捍衛受欺凌同伴的行為，感知到的禁令規範是否減輕了這些影響?

儘管人們已經發現了許多與抵禦欺凌相關的社會認知和情境因素，但對相關的人格特質研究卻存在了薄弱且矛盾的結果。本研究檢驗了社會退縮傾向是否與較低的捍衛頻率有關，以及捍衛和攻擊的規範是否能將社會退縮對捍衛行為的影響降至最低。研究人員在一個學年的秋季、冬季和春季對1,564名兒童(760名女孩;平均年齡10.05歲;55.0%的白人;36.1%的黑人)進行了跟蹤調查。通過自我報告和同齡人報告來測量捍衛行為。通過教師報告來衡量社交退縮。由參與者對同伴的受歡迎程度、捍衛行為以及攻擊性進行評分。通過計算同伴的受歡迎度和捍衛度以及同伴的受歡迎度和攻擊性個體內的相關性來評估感知到的規範。結果顯示，在秋季，社交退縮與同伴報告的較少的捍衛行為相關，而且這種影響會持續整個學年。對於男孩來說，在秋季，當他們認為受歡迎的同伴不太可能進行捍衛行為時，較低的社交退縮水平與同伴報告的較少的捍衛行為有關。在認為捍衛者受歡迎和自我報告的捍衛行為之間發現了一種暫時的(例如在秋季)聯繫，如果孩子們認為受歡迎的孩子具有攻擊性，他們在整個學年中自我報告捍衛行為的可能性就會降低。這些發現強調了研究氣質特徵和感知到的背景規範如何共同影響旁觀者在目睹欺凌時的行為的必要性。

Although a number of social–cognitive and contextual correlates of defending against bullying have been identified, research on the personality traits associated with defending have yielded weak and inconsistent results. The current study provided a novel examination as to whether a tendency toward social withdrawal is associated with less frequent defending and whether perceived injunctive norms for defending and aggression minimize the impact of social withdrawal on defending behaviors. A sample of 1,564 children (760 girls; Mage = 10.05; 55.0% White; 36.1% Black) were followed in the fall, winter, and spring of a school year. Defending was measured with self-reports and peer-reports. Social withdrawal was measured using teacher-reports. Perceived injunctive norms were estimated by calculating within-person correlations between participants』 ratings of peers』 popularity and defending and between peers』 popularity and aggression. Results revealed that social withdrawal was associated with less peer-reported defending in the fall, and this effect was sustained over the school year. For boys, lower levels of social withdrawal in the fall were associated with less peer-reported defending when they viewed popular peers as unlikely to defend. A temporary (i.e., fall) association was found between viewing defenders as popular and self-reported defending, and children became less likely to self-report defending over the school year if they viewed popular children as aggressive. These findings underscore the need to examine how temperamental traits and perceived contextual norms cocontribute to bystanders』 behavior when witnessing bullying.

參考文獻：Crumly, B., Thomas, J., McWood, L. M., & Troop-Gordon, W. (2022). Does social withdrawal inhibit defending bullied peers and do perceived injunctive norms mitigate those effects? Developmental Psychology, 58(1), 161-175. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0001276

2.解釋將心比心和兒童心智能力之間的關係：一個觀察性學前兒童評估方法的發展

這項研究的目的是開發一種新的基於觀察的測量方法來評估學齡前兒童看護人的將心比心能力，並探究該方法是否可以解釋母親早期適當的心智相關評論和兒童之後心智能力的關係。新的測量方法是以44個月大的嬰兒(N = 171)及其母親為樣本開發的，通過(a)引導兒童參與，(b)適應性交流，和(c)內部狀態談話來描述將心比心。這些指標與8個月、44個月和61個月時對將心比心的評估呈正相關。並且和隨後兒童的心智能力也呈正相關。然而，使用新測量方法測量的將心比心並沒有在第一年的將心比心和兒童的心智能力之間起到中介作用。

The aim of this research was to develop a new observation-based measure for assessing caregivers』 mind-mindedness in the preschool years and investigate whether this measure could explain the link between mothers』 early appropriate mind-related comments and children’s later mentalizing abilities. The new measure was developed using a sample of mothers and 44-month-olds (N = 171), characterizing mind-mindedness in terms of (a) solicited child involvement, (b) adaptive communication, and (c) internal state talk. These indices were positively related to established assessments of mind-mindedness at 8, 44, and 61 months. Positive associations were also observed with children’s later mentalizing abilities. The new measure of mind-mindedness did not, however, mediate the relation between mind-mindedness in the first year of life and children’s mentalizing abilities.

參考文獻：Fishburn, S., Meins, E., Fernyhough, C., Centifanti, L. C. M., & Larkin, F. (2022). Explaining the relation between early mind-mindedness and children’s mentalizing abilities: The development of an observational preschool assessment. Developmental Psychology, 58(1), 17-31. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0001272

3. 6 - 15歲兒童基於模板的面部表情知覺的發展

在感知情緒面部表情時，成年人使用模板匹配策略，將感知到的面部表情與存儲的表情進行比較。拒絕非自然、誇張的面孔是該策略的特徵，因為誇張的表情與存儲的模板不匹配。相比之下，基於規則的感知策略(例如，睜大眼睛表示驚訝)更能容忍誇張表情。本研究採用誇張容忍度來測試6 ~ 15歲兒童的表情知覺策略。在實驗1，62名(38名男性)被試觀看幾組誇張程度不同的快樂或悲傷的面孔，並選擇看起來最接近真實長相的快樂(或悲傷)面孔。隨着年齡的增長，孩子們更少地選擇更誇張的表情。在實驗2，試圖將這一結果複製到六種基本情緒中。66名6到15歲的兒童(26名男性，50名白人，10名混血，4名印度人，2名身份不明)完成了與實驗1相同的六種情緒的實驗任務。同樣，隨着年齡的增長，孩子們更少選擇更誇張的臉。兩個實驗的結果都表明，類似成人的模板匹配策略的發展會持續到青春期。

When perceiving emotional facial expressions, adults use a template-matching strategy, comparing the perceived face with a stored representation. A rejection of unnaturally exaggerated faces is characteristic of this strategy because the exaggerated expressions do not match the stored template. In contrast, a rule-based perceptual strategy (e.g., wide eyes indicate surprise) would be more tolerant of exaggeration. The current study uses exaggeration tolerance to test the expression perception strategies of children from 6 to 15 years of age. In Experiment 1, 62 (38 male) participants viewed pairs of happy or sad faces varying in exaggeration and selected the face that looked closest to how a happy (or sad) person really looks. With age, children became less likely to choose the more exaggerated expression. In Experiment 2, this result was replicated with each of the six basic emotions. Sixty-six children (26 male, 50 Caucasian, 10 mixed-race, four Indian, two unidentified) from 6 to 15 years of age completed the same experimental tasks as Experiment 1 for all six emotions. Again, with age children became less likely to choose the more exaggerated face. The results from both experiments suggest that the development of an adult-like template-matching strategy lasts into adolescence.

參考文獻：Foglia, V., Zhang, H., Walsh, J. A., & Rutherford, M. D. (2022). The development of template-based facial expression perception from 6 to 15 years of age. Developmental Psychology, 58(1), 96-111. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0001277

4. 什麼是分心?父母使用手機對父母和孩子提問的影響

善於提問能夠促進孩子的學習，但父母把精力都放在玩手機上會影響父母和孩子提問和回答問題的頻率。我們的問題是，父母使用手機是否會減少孩子和父母在玩新玩具時相互問問題的數量。57對親子(平均年齡48.72個月，SD = 6.53，女生28名;84.2% 白種人)被隨機分配到手機、紙面或對照條件下。當孩子們在玩一種具有隱藏功能的新型玩具時，在手機組的父母完成了一項關於在手機上閱讀的調查，而紙面組的父母則在紙上完成這項調查。對照組的父母沒有完成調查。結果表明，手機組的孩子們問的問題比在對照組中要少。然而，沒有出現其他條件差異。然而，父母的信息尋求問題在三個條件下都有所不同:他們在對照條件下的問題比在手機和紙麵條件下的問題多，更重要的是，在紙麵條件下的問題比在手機條件下的問題多。最後討論了可能的解釋和對父母使用手機的影響。

Although questions fuel children’s learning, adult cell phone use may preoccupy parents, affecting the frequency of questions parents and children ask and answer. We ask whether parental cell phone use will lead to a decrease in the number of questions children and parents ask one another while playing with a novel toy. Fifty-seven parent–child dyads (Mage = 48.72 months, SD = 6.53, 28 girls; 84.2% White) were randomly assigned to a cell phone, paper, or control condition. As children played with a novel toy with hidden functions, parents in the cell phone condition completed a survey about reading on their cell phone, while parents in the paper condition did it on paper. Parents in the control condition did not complete the survey. Results suggest that children asked fewer questions in the cell phone than in the control condition. However, no other condition differences emerged. Parents』 information-seeking questioning, however, differed in all three conditions: they asked more in the control than in the cell phone and paper conditions and, critically, asked more in the paper than cell phone condition. Possible explanations and implications for parents』 cell phone use are discussed.

參考文獻：Gaudreau, C., Hirsh-Pasek, K., & Golinkoff, R. M. (2022). What’s in a distraction? The effect of parental cell phone use on parents』 and children’s question-asking. Developmental Psychology, 58(1), 55-68. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0001268

5.空間訓練對數學成績的影響:元分析

先前的研究已經揭示了空間技能和數學技能之間的穩固和一致的關係。然而，建立因果關係卻遇到了各種各樣的影響。為了更好地理解空間訓練是否能夠提高數學成績、提高到何種程度以及在何種條件下提高數學成績，我們對現有文獻進行了系統的元分析。我們的分析包括29項研究，這些研究採用了控制前-後研究設計來測試空間訓練對數學的影響(N = 3,765;k = 89)。訓練相對於控制條件的平均效應量(Hedges 's g)為.28 (SE = .07)。重要的是，也有證據表明空間訓練改善了個體的空間思維(g = .49, SE = .09)。後續分析顯示，年齡、具體操作的使用和遷移類型(「近」與「遠」)調節了空間訓練對數學的影響。隨着年齡從3歲增加到20歲，空間訓練的效果也在增大。使用具體材料的空間訓練範式(如操縱性)比不使用具體材料的空間訓練範式(如計算機化訓練)更有效。與遠端相關的結果相比，與空間訓練更接近的數學結果觀察到更大的遷移效應。其他變量(訓練強度、空間增益、測試後時間、對照組類型、實驗設計、呈現類型)都沒有調節作用。此外，對發表偏倚和選擇性結果報告的分析也不顯著。總的來說，我們的結果支持了先前的研究和理論主張，即空間訓練是提高數學理解能力和成績的有效手段。然而，我們的元分析也強調了對促進遷移的機制理解不足。為了充分實現數學成績空間訓練的潛在效益，需要更多的理論指導研究

Prior research has revealed robust and consistent relations between spatial and mathematical skills. Yet, establishing a causal relation has been met with mixed effects. To better understand whether, to what extent, and under what conditions mathematics performance can be improved through spatial training, we conducted a systematic meta-analysis of the extant literature. Our analysis included 29 studies that used controlled pre-post study designs to test the effects of spatial training on mathematics (N = 3,765; k = 89). The average effect size (Hedges’s g) of training relative to control conditions was .28 (SE = .07). Critically, there was also evidence that spatial training improved individuals』 spatial thinking (g = .49, SE = .09). Follow-up analyses revealed that age, use of concrete manipulatives, and type of transfer (「near」 vs. 「far」) moderated the effects of spatial training on mathematics. As the age of participants increased from 3 to 20 years, the effects of spatial training also increased in size. Spatial training paradigms that used concrete materials (e.g., manipulatives) were more effective than those that did not (e.g., computerized training). Larger transfer effects were observed for mathematics outcomes more closely aligned to the spatial training delivered compared to outcomes more distally related. None of the other variables examined (training dosage, spatial gains, posttest timing, type of control group, experimental design, publication status) moderated the effects. Additionally, analyses of publication bias and selective outcome reporting were nonsignificant. Overall, our results support prior research and theoretical claims that spatial training is an effective means for enhancing mathematical understanding and performance. However, our meta-analysis also highlights a poor understanding of the mechanisms that support transfer. To fully realize the potential benefits of spatial training on mathematics achievement, more theoretically guided studies are needed.

參考文獻：Hawes, Z. C. K., Gilligan-Lee, K. A., & Mix, K. S. (2022). Effects of spatial training on mathematics performance: A meta-analysis. Developmental Psychology, 58(1), 112-137. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0001281

6.比較兒童和成人在空間和噪聲環境中聽覺選擇性注意的有意轉換

兒童的發展和教育發生在具有高度複雜聲學場景的教室中，包括在空間中分布的目標揚聲器、許多周圍分散注意力的聲音和一般背景噪聲。因此，聽覺選擇性注意是很重要的，可以用來感知方向、聚焦於特定的聲源，並提取相關信息。到目前為止，還不知道兒童在空間情境中有意注意控制的認知過程發展到什麼程度，以及他們與成人有何不同。這項工作提供了一個範式來檢查兒童的聽覺選擇性注意的有意轉換，也探究了通過耳機虛擬呈現的嘈雜和空間聲音環境的影響。德國進行了一項聽力實驗，參與者包括24名兒童(6-10歲，50%為女性)和24名成年人(18-26歲，50%為女性)。首先，結果顯示，在有噪音的條件下(相對於沒有噪音的條件)，兒童的錯誤率更高，反應時間更短，但成年人沒有。排除誤差，這表明兒童對噪音更敏感，他們對噪音試驗的反應更快。第二，雖然兒童和成人在注意轉換和相關信息選擇中反映出的聽覺注意靈活性是相當的，但成人在選擇相關信息時受益於空間線索。這在兒童中沒有觀察到。這些結果表明，兒童的認知過程受到明顯低於成人的噪聲水平的影響，噪聲影響評估方法應考慮空間方面。這些結果表明，兒童的認知過程比成人更容易受到噪聲影響。未來噪聲影響的研究要考慮空間方面的因素。

Children’s development and education take place in educational buildings with highly complex acoustic scenes, including spatially distributed target speakers, many surrounding distracting sounds, and general background noises. Auditory selective attention, therefore, is a valuable tool to orient oneself, to focus on specific sound sources, and to extract relevant information. Until now, it is unknown to what extent children have developed the cognitive processes of intentional attention control in spatial situations and how they differ from adults. This work provides a paradigm to examine children’s intentional switching of auditory selective attention that also allows to examine effects due to noisy and spatial sound environments presented virtually via headphones. A listening experiment was conducted in Germany with 24 children (6–10 years, 50% female) and 24 young adults (18–26 years, 50% female). First, results revealed higher error rates and lower reaction times in conditions with noise (relative to conditions without noise) for children, but not for adults. This assumes that children are more sensitive to noise and conclude faster with noise trials, taking errors into account. Second, although auditory attention flexibility reflected in attention switch and relevant information selection was comparable between children and adults, it was found that adults benefited from spatial cues when selecting the relevant information. This was not observed to the same extent in children. These results suggest that children’s cognitive processes are affected at significantly lower noise levels than adults and that noise effect assessment methods should consider spatial aspects.

參考文獻：Loh, K., Fintor, E., Nolden, S., & Fels, J. (2022). Children’s intentional switching of auditory selective attention in spatial and noisy acoustic environments in comparison to adults. Developmental Psychology, 58(1), 69-82. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0001239

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7.在經濟交換中，兒童會選擇性地信任領導者和親社會代理人嗎？

大多數合作互動涉及人際信任和互惠的期望。因此，理解人類何時以及如何獲得人際信任有助於揭示兒童合作行為的起源和發展。本研究調查了先前關於交易夥伴的社會道德信息是否會影響學齡前兒童(4-5歲)和學齡兒童(7-8歲)在兒童友好型信任遊戲中分享自己物品的選擇。在這個遊戲中，受託夥伴可以償還孩子的初始投資，也可以保留一切，背叛委託人。在兩項研究中，我們探討了信任是否受到表現出親社會行為與反社會行為的受託人的調節(研究1，「幫助者和阻礙者」)，或者基於尊重的權力與基於恐懼的權力的調節(研究2，「領導者和欺負者」)。學齡前兒童對領導者的信任度高於欺負者，對阻礙者的信任度低於中立者。隨着年齡的增長，人們更傾向於相信幫助者而不是阻礙者，這是信任親社會代理人的結果。總的來說，這些發現表明，到5歲時，兒童理解複雜的合作交流，並開始依賴社會道德信息來決定信任誰。

Most cooperative interactions involve interpersonal trust and the expectation of mutual reciprocation. Thus, understanding when and how humans acquire interpersonal trust can help unveil the origins and development of children’s cooperative behavior. Here, we investigated whether prior sociomoral information about trading partners modulates the choice of preschool (4–5 years) and school-age children (7–8 years) to share their own goods in a child-friendly version of the trust game. In this game, the trustee partner can repay the child’s initial investment or keep everything and betray the trustor. In two studies, we addressed whether trust is modulated by trustees exhibiting prosocial versus antisocial behaviors (Study 1, 「helper and hinderer」), or respect-based versus fear-based power (Study 2, 「leader and bully」). Preschoolers trusted the leader reliably more than the bully, and the hinderer reliably less than a neutral agent. The tendency to trust the helper more than the hinderer increased with age as a result of the increased propensity to trust the prosocial agent. Overall, these findings indicate that, by age 5, children understand complex cooperative exchanges and start relying on sociomoral information when deciding whom to trust.

參考文獻：Margoni, F., Nava, E., & Surian, L. (2022). Do children selectively trust leaders and prosocial agents in an economic exchange? Developmental Psychology, 58(1), 152-160. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0001282

8.動手實踐:非正式學習中美國本土和非本土父母-孩子組合的非語言交流

親子溝通是一個豐富的、多模態的過程。大量的研究記錄了某些美國家庭(主要是白人家庭)的交際策略，然而我們對美國土著家庭的交際策略卻知之甚少。本研究通過記錄父母和他們4歲的孩子(N = 39，25個男孩)在兩個社區使用的語言和非語言行為來解決這一欠缺：生活在威斯康星州農村部落土地上的梅諾米尼人家庭(中低收入)，以及生活在城市地區的非本地人，主要是白人家庭(中等收入)。為了讓家長和孩子關於自然世界的談話和遊戲，他們參加了森林立體模型任務。來自兩個社區的孩子在他們的談話中自由地融入了動作和手勢，這說明在評估孩子所知道的東西時考慮非語言行為是很重要的。梅諾米尼兒童比非土著兒童說得更多，與美國土著兒童很少說話的刻板印象形成鮮明對比，說明在兒童測量中考慮文化背景的重要性。對於兩個社區的兒童和父母來說，手勢比動作更有可能與言語的內容相關，也比動作更有可能與言語同時產生。語音和手勢之間的這種緊密耦合複製並擴展了以前主要使用白人(和成人)樣本的研究。這些發現不僅拓寬了我們的交際互動和發展理論，而且為非言語行為在非正式學習環境中的作用提供了新的證據。

Parent–child communication is a rich, multimodal process. Substantial research has documented the communicative strategies in certain (predominantly White) United States families, yet we know little about these communicative strategies in Native American families. The current study addresses that gap by documenting the verbal and nonverbal behaviors used by parents and their 4-year-old children (N = 39, 25 boys) across two communities: Menominee families (low to middle income) living on tribal lands in rural Wisconsin, and non-Native, primarily White families (middle income) living in an urban area. Dyads participated in a free-play forest-diorama task designed to elicit talk and play about the natural world. Children from both communities incorporated actions and gestures freely in their talk, emphasizing the importance of considering nonverbal behaviors when evaluating what children know. In sharp contrast to the stereotype that Native American children talk very little, Menominee children talked more than their non-Native counterparts, underlining the importance of taking into account cultural context in child assessments. For children and parents across both communities, gestures were more likely than actions to be related to the content of speech and were more likely than actions to be produced simultaneously with speech. This tight coupling between speech and gesture replicates and extends prior research with predominantly White (and adult) samples. These findings not only broaden our theories of communicative interaction and development, but also provide new evidence about the role of nonverbal behaviors in informal learning contexts.

參考文獻：Novack, M. A., Standley, M., Bang, M., Washinawatok, K., Medin, D., & Waxman, S. (2022). Hands on: Nonverbal communication in Native and non-Native American parent–child dyads during informal learning. Developmental Psychology, 58(1), 32-42. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0001279

9. 重新檢查親子關係和親子互動之間的聯繫:納入遺傳影響

家庭系統研究確定了兩個關鍵過程(溢出和補償)，將親子關係質量與親子互動聯繫起來。然而，以前的研究集中在父母作為唯一的發起者，較少考慮兒童在這些過程中的作用。本研究通過利用遺傳信息設計來檢驗可能的兒童喚起對溢出和補償過程的影響。參與者來自一個縱向親子收養樣本，包括361對被收養兒童的養父母(57%為男性)和孩子的親生父母。養父母在18個月時報告了孩子的快樂和憤怒，在27個月時報告了親子關係。在兒童6歲時觀察親子互動，並通過生母在5個月時的自我報告評估遺傳影響。我們的研究結果表明，在孩子27個月大時父母間的溫暖程度較高與孩子6歲時養母-孩子脅迫程度較低相關，這是一種抑制效應；在孩子6歲時，父母間的衝突程度較高與養父-孩子積極參與程度較高相關，這是一種補償效應。此外，我們的結果還發現兒童能通過遺傳和環境影響上述關係。具體來說，較高水平的生母負面影響(遺傳特徵)與較低水平的養父-子女脅迫相關。此外，孩子的憤怒與父母間的衝突正相關，孩子的快樂與父母間的溫暖正相關。這些發現支持了來自家庭文獻的發現，並提供了代償機制的證據，同時也強調了兒童在形成家庭互動中的積極作用。

Family systems research has identified two key processes (spillover and compensatory), linking interparental relationship quality to the parent–child relationship. However, previous research has focused on the parent as the sole initiator and had not often considered the role of the child in these processes. The present study adds to the literature by leveraging a genetically informed design to examine possible child evocative effects on spillover and compensatory processes. Participants were from a longitudinal parent-offspring adoption sample of 361 linked sets of adoptive parents of an adopted child (57% male), and the child’s birth parents. Adoptive parents reported on child pleasure and anger at 18 months and the interparental relationship at 27 months. Parent–child interactions were observed at child age 6 years, and heritable influences were assessed via birth mother self-report at 5 months. Our results indicated a dampening effect where higher interparental warmth at child age 27 months was associated with less adoptive mother–child coercion at child age 6 years, and a compensatory effect where higher interparental conflict was associated with more adoptive father–child positive engagement. Moreover, our results indicated child-driven effects via both genetic and environmental pathways. Specifically, higher levels of birth mother negative affect (heritable characteristic) were associated with lower levels of adoptive father–child coercion. Also, child anger was positively associated with interparental conflict, and child pleasure was positively associated with interparental warmth. These findings support findings from the family literature with evidence of compensatory mechanisms, while also highlighting the active role children play in shaping family interactions.

參考文獻：Ramos, A. M., Shewark, E. A., Fosco, G. M., Shaw, D. S., Reiss, D., Natsuaki, M. N., Leve, L. D., & Neiderhiser, J. M. (2022). Reexamining the association between the interparental relationship and parent–child interactions: Incorporating heritable influences. Developmental Psychology, 58(1), 43-54. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0001278

10. 基於接觸的干預措施共享教育改善了衝突後北愛爾蘭青少年的群體間關係

過去的研究表明，群際接觸是一種有希望改善群際關係的干預措施，基於接觸的干預措施在青春期可能最有效。在衝突後的北愛爾蘭，普遍的居住隔離和基本上隔離的學校限制了天主教和新教青少年之間的群體間接觸。我們評估了一項促進就讀於不同學校的學生之間群體間聯繫的大規模干預(「共享教育」項目)是否改善了北愛爾蘭群體間關係的一系列相關結果。我們進行了一項5個時間點的縱向准實驗性研究，該研究跟蹤了大量在校學生樣本(N = 5159，Mage = 12.4，年齡範圍:10-14歲；2988名女生，2044名男生)，來自56所主要是天主教或新教的學校，從六年級到十年級。我們將九年級(14-15歲)和十年級(15-16歲)學生分為兩組，比較兩組的發展軌跡，其中一組與來自其他社區的學生分享一些課程，另一組沒有這樣做。我們發現，參與共享課堂對學生課外的群體間接觸有中等規模的積極影響，對學生的群體外態度、群體外信任和群體間同理心有較小的積極影響(但對他們的群體間焦慮、未來接觸意向、去專業化或多元文化信仰沒有影響)。我們的發現表明，在後衝突社會中，基於學校的共享教育計劃可以提供一種可行和有效的干預措施，以促進群際聯繫，改善群際關係，並在大範圍內促進青少年的社會融合。

Past research has shown that intergroup contact can be a promising intervention to improve intergroup relations and that contact-based interventions might be most effective during adolescence. In postconflict Northern Ireland, widespread residential segregation and a largely separate school system limit opportunities for intergroup contact between adolescents from the Catholic and Protestant communities. We evaluated whether a large-scale intervention to facilitate intergroup contact between students attending separate schools (the 『Shared Education』 program) improves a range of outcomes relevant for intergroup relations in Northern Ireland. We conducted a 5-wave longitudinal, quasi-experimental study that followed a large sample of school students (N = 5,159, Mage = 12.4, age range: 10–14 years; 2,988 girls, 2,044 boys) from 56 predominantly Catholic or Protestant schools from sixth to tenth grade. We compared the developmental trajectories of students who, in 9th (14–15 years) and 10th (15–16 years) grade, shared some classes with students from the other community, as part of the program, to students who did not. We found that participating in shared classes had a medium-size, positive effect on the amount of intergroup contact students had outside of class, and small, positive effects on students』 outgroup attitudes, outgroup trust, and intergroup empathy (but not on their intergroup anxiety, future contact intentions, deprovincialization, or multicultural beliefs). Our findings show that a school-based program of shared education can provide a viable and effective intervention to facilitate intergroup contact, improve intergroup relations, and foster social integration among adolescents at a large scale in a postconflict society.

參考文獻：Reimer, N. K., Hughes, J., Blaylock, D., Donnelly, C., Wölfer, R., & Hewstone, M. (2022). Shared education as a contact-based intervention to improve intergroup relations among adolescents in postconflict Northern Ireland. Developmental Psychology, 58(1), 193-208. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0001274

11. 級聯行動:嬰兒如何從爬行過渡到步行能夠塑造日常互動中的護理溝通

新的運動技能為嬰兒提供了新的行動可能性，並在意想不到的地方對發展產生影響。例如，從爬行到行走的過渡伴隨着其他能力的提高——更好地移動、看世界和參與社會互動（例如，Adolph & Tamis-LeMonda, 2014）。嬰兒與行走相關的發展變化會影響到看護者的交流行為嗎？我們觀察了30名嬰兒(14名男孩，16名女孩；93%的白人，非西班牙裔或拉丁裔)和他們的照顧者(84%擁有大學學位或更高學位)在開始行走前後的兩個月時間內在家中的日常活動 (嬰兒年齡= 11.98個月，月齡範圍= 8.74–14.86)。使用跨域編碼系統，我們跟蹤了嬰兒的運動動作和看護者的並發語言、手勢輸入之間的共現率的變化。我們在兩個時間尺度上研究了這些關係——在嬰兒從爬行過渡到行走的整個發育時間，以及基於嬰兒姿勢的即時差異。一個一致的結果模式出現了:與爬行相比，嬰兒走路更有可能與看護者的語言和手勢同時出現，這些語言和手勢要麼要求或描述運動，要麼提供關於物體的信息。還發現了嬰兒實時行為的影響，例如，與俯臥相比，當嬰兒直立移動時，更有可能聽到照顧者的語言。綜上所述，研究結果表明，行走的出現重組了嬰兒-看護者的二元組合，並啟動了一個發展級聯，塑造了看護者與嬰兒的交流方式。

New motor skills supply infants with new possibilities for action and have consequences for development in unexpected places. For example, the transition from crawling to walking is accompanied by gains in other abilities—better ways to move, see the world, and engage in social interactions (e.g., Adolph & Tamis-LeMonda, 2014). Do the developmental changes associated with walking extend to the communicative behaviors of caregivers? Thirty infants (14 boys, 16 girls; 93% White, not Hispanic or Latino) and their caregivers (84% held a college degree or higher) were observed during everyday activities at home during the two-month window surrounding the onset of walking (M infant age = 11.98 months, range = 8.74–14.86). Using a cross-domain coding system, we tracked change in the rates of co-occurrence between infants』 locomotor actions and caregivers』 concurrent language and gesture input. We examined these relations on two timescales—across developmental time, as infants transitioned from crawling to walking, and in real time based on moment-to-moment differences in infant posture. A consistent pattern of results emerged: compared to crawling, bouts of infant walking were more likely to co-occur with caregiver language and gestures that either requested or described movement or provided information about objects. An effect of infants』 real-time behavior was also discovered, such that infants were more likely to hear language from their caregivers when they moved while upright compared to prone. Taken together, findings suggest that the emergence of walking reorganizes the infant–caregiver dyad and sets in motion a developmental cascade that shapes the communication caregivers provide.

參考文獻：Schneider, J. L., & Iverson, J. M. (2022). Cascades in action: How the transition to walking shapes caregiver communication during everyday interactions. Developmental Psychology, 58(1), 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0001280

12. 不是空間焦慮，而是空間技能中介了數字線估計的性別差異

最近，越來越多的證據表明，在數軸上，男性對整數的估計比女性更準確。然而，對於是什麼因素造成了這種性別差距，我們知之甚少。本研究探討了數字線估計中性別差異的潛在中介，包括空間技能和空間焦慮。在秋季(時間點1 [T1])，從幼兒園到四年級的490名兒童(274名女孩)完成了數字線估計、空間技能(包括比例推理、心理旋轉、心理轉換和視覺空間工作記憶)和空間焦慮的適齡測量。大約5個月後的春天(時間點2 [T2])，孩子們再次完成了同樣的數線估計。男孩在數線估計、比例推理和心理旋轉方面比女孩更準確，而女孩表現出更高水平的空間焦慮。重要的是，T1時的空間技能(由比例推理、心理旋轉、心理轉換和視覺空間工作記憶構成的潛在變量)中介了T2數線估計的性別差異，而空間焦慮不是重要的中介變量。這些關係甚至在控制了T1數字線估計、閱讀成績和閱讀焦慮後仍然成立。在四種空間技能中，比例推理和心理旋轉(而不是心理轉換或視覺空間工作記憶)是T2數線估計性別差異的中介變量。據我們所知，這是證明了整數線估計中性別差異的第一個研究。

Recently, there has been increasing evidence showing that males estimate whole numbers more accurately than females on the number line. However, relatively little is known about what factors contribute to this gender gap. The current study explored potential mediators of the gender difference in number line estimation, including spatial skills and spatial anxiety. In the Fall (time-point 1 [T1]), 490 children from kindergarten through fourth grade (274 girls) completed age-appropriate measures of number line estimation, spatial skills (including proportional reasoning, mental rotation, mental transformation, and visuospatial working memory), and spatial anxiety. About 5 month later in the Spring (time-point 2 [T2]), children completed the same measure of number line estimation again. Boys were more accurate on number line estimation, proportional reasoning, and mental rotation than girls, whereas girls showed higher levels of spatial anxiety. Critically, spatial skills (a latent variable constructed from proportional reasoning, mental rotation, mental transformation, and visuospatial working memory) at T1 mediated the gender difference in T2 number line estimation whereas spatial anxiety was not a significant mediator. These relationships held even after controlling for T1 number line estimation, reading achievement, and reading anxiety. Among the four spatial skills, proportional reasoning and mental rotation (but not mental transformation or visuospatial working memory) were mediators of the gender difference in T2 number line estimation. These findings constitute, to our knowledge, the first evidence regarding factors contributing to the gender difference in whole number line estimation.

參考文獻：Tian, J., Dam, S., & Gunderson, E. A. (2022). Spatial skills, but not spatial anxiety, mediate the gender difference in number line estimation. Developmental Psychology, 58(1), 138-151. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0001265

13. 中國學前兒童執行功能與接受性詞彙的相互關係:一項為期兩年的縱向研究證據

本研究採用三個時間點的縱向設計，分別關注執行功能的三個組成部分，以檢驗執行功能與接受性詞彙之間的關係是否是相互的，以及上述關係的方向是否會因執行功能的組成部分和兒童性別而有所不同。共有320名中國學齡前兒童分別在入學第一年(T1)、第二年(T2)和第三年(T3)接受了評估。兒童的英語詞彙由六項計算機任務評估，接受性詞彙由皮博迪圖片詞彙測驗(PPVT-4)評估。使用截距交叉滯後面板模型(RI-CLPM)對數據進行分析。研究結果為執行功能和接受性詞彙之間的相互關係提供了一些支持，但是這種相互關係的模式因執行功能成分的不同而不同。具體來說，抑制性控制/注意轉移和接受性詞彙在T1和T2之間是相互預測的，T2的抑制性控制/注意轉移可以顯著預測T3的接受性詞彙，但反之則不然。此外，工作記憶和接受性詞彙在T1和T2之間以及T2和T3之間相互預測。最後，在上述關係中沒有發現兒童性別差異。我們的研究結果表明，結合執行功能和語言技能的指導和干預可能是提高跨技能成功的重要途徑

By using a three-time longitudinal design, the present study focuses on three components of executive function (EF), respectively, to examine whether the relation between EF and receptive vocabulary was reciprocal and whether the direction of the above relation would differ by EF components and child gender. A total of 320 Chinese preschool children were assessed when they enrolled in peschool the first year (T1), the second year (T2) and the third year (T3), respectively. Children’s EF was assessed by six computerized tasks, and receptive vocabulary was assessed by the Peabody Picture Vocabulary test (PPVT-4). Data were analyzed in the random intercept cross-lagged panel model (RI-CLPM). Findings provided some support for within-person reciprocal relations between EF and receptive vocabulary, but the reciprocal patterns varied depending on EF components. In specific, inhibitory control/attention shift and receptive vocabulary were reciprocally predicted between T1 and T2, and inhibitory control/attention shift at T2 could significantly predict receptive vocabulary at T3, but not vice versa. In addition, working memory and receptive vocabulary were reciprocally predicted between T1 and T2 and between T2 and T3. Finally, no child gender differences were found in the above relations. Our findings suggest that the instructions and interventions integrating EF and language skills may be an important avenue for enhancing success across skills.

參考文獻：Xing, X., Wei, Y., & Wang, M. (2022). Reciprocal relation between executive function and receptive vocabulary in Chinese preschoolers: Evidence from a two-year longitudinal study. Developmental Psychology, 58(1), 83-95. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000996

14. 將壓力和應對模型應用於不同青少年的民族/種族認同、歧視和適應

本研究採用壓力和應對框架中的暴露、反應和恢復概念，探究了76名非裔美國人、145名亞裔美國人和129名拉丁裔美國青少年的歧視、適應和民族/種族認同的三種模式。青少年樣本取自美國東北部大城市地區的公立學校，62%為女性，平均年齡為14.3歲。多水平分析支持暴露效應(模型1)，其中較高水平的民族/種族認同(ERI)承諾與歧視壓力減少28%呈相關關係。歧視的負面影響因民族/種族認同承諾和中心/私人關注而減弱，而民族/種族認同探索(模型2)則加劇了這種影響。除了積極情緒和焦慮，研究數據支持從歧視壓力中恢復。本文在健康差距的形成和維持方面討論了歧視問題。

Adopting the constructs of exposure, reactivity, and recovery, from stress and coping frameworks, this study investigated three models of discrimination, adjustment, and ethnic/racial identity among 76 African American, 145 Asian American, and 129 Latinx adolescents who were majority United States-born. The sample includes adolescents sampled from public schools in a large urban area in the northeastern United States, 62% female and with an average age of 14.3 years. Multilevel analyses support an exposure effect (Model 1) where a higher level of ethnic/racial identity (ERI) commitment was associated with a 28% reduction in experiencing discrimination stress. The negative effects of discrimination were attenuated by ERI commitment and centrality/private regard, while effects were exacerbated by ERI exploration (Model 2). Two approaches investigated next-day and longer-term recovery from discrimination (Model 3). With the exception of positive mood and anxiety, the data support recovery from discrimination stress. Discrimination is discussed in the development and maintenance of health disparities.

參考文獻：Yip, T., Cham, H., Wang, Y., & Xie, M. (2022). Applying stress and coping models to ethnic/racial identity, discrimination, and adjustment among diverse adolescents. Developmental Psychology, 58(1), 176-192. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0001283

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