鑽石舞台

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編輯|小巴

1. 低圍產期雄性激素能預測男性的兒童期性別不一致現象

性腺激素對人類行為發展影響的性別差異備受學界和社會關注。孤立性促性腺激素釋放激素缺乏症(IGD)是一種罕見的內分泌疾病，能夠揭示早期性腺激素的作用。IGD的特點是妊娠三個月後性腺激素分泌低或不存在，但外生殖器和性別與染色體和性腺性別一致。本研究測量了兒童期患有IGD的男性(n = 65)、女性(n = 32)和正常發育的男性(n = 463)、女性(n = 1,207)間的不一致。患有IGD的男性顯示出較高的兒童期性別不一致，在他們報告出生時隱睾時尤甚，這是圍產期雄性激素低下的標誌。患有IGD的女性與正常發育的女性沒有區別。這些結果表明，懷孕三個月後的早期雄性激素暴露有助於在兒童時期形成男性典型的性別角色行為。

The contributions of gonadal hormones to the development of human behavioral sex differences are subjects of intense scientific and social interest. Isolated gonadotropin-releasing-hormone deficiency (IGD) is a rare endocrine disorder that can reveal a possible role of early gonadal hormones. IGD is characterized by low or absent gonadal hormone production after the first trimester of gestation, but external genitalia and hence gender of rearing are concordant with chromosomal and gonadal sex. We investigated recalled childhood gender nonconformity in men (n = 65) and women (n = 32) with IGD and typically developing men (n = 463) and women (n = 1,207). Men with IGD showed elevated childhood gender nonconformity, particularly if they also reported undescended testes at birth, a marker of low perinatal androgens. Women with IGD did not differ from typically developing women. These results indicate that early androgen exposure after the first trimester contributes to male-typical gender-role behaviors in childhood.

參考文獻：Shirazi, T. N., Self, H., Rosenfield, K. A., Dawood, K., Welling, L. L. M., Cárdenas, R., Bailey, J. M., Balasubramanian, R., Delaney, A., Breedlove, S. M., & Puts, D. A. (2022). Low Perinatal Androgens Predict Recalled Childhood Gender Nonconformity in Men. Psychological Science, 33(3), 343–353. https://doi.org/10.1177/09567976211036075

2. 感知分組解釋了不同文化間星座的相似性

世界各地的文化將恆星組織成星座或星群，這些星群通常被認為是任意的、文化特異的。然而，不同文化中的星象有驚人的相似之處，獵戶座、北斗七星、昴宿星團和南十字星等星群在許多不同的文化中被廣泛認可。心理學家提出，這些共有的圖示或許可以用格式塔的分組法則來解釋，但目前還沒有系統地嘗試對不同文化中反覆出現的星體進行編目，或解釋這些分組的知覺基礎。本研究匯總了來自世界各地27種文化的數據，發現一個簡單的知覺分組的計算模型可以解釋許多反覆出現的跨文化星象。本研究結果表明，基本的知覺原則在不同文化的星象結構中所占的比例比之前認為的要多，並提出了特定文化偏離這一共同的基線的方式。

Cultures around the world organize stars into constellations, or asterisms, and these groupings are often considered to be arbitrary and culture specific. Yet there are striking similarities in asterisms across cultures, and groupings such as Orion, the Big Dipper, the Pleiades, and the Southern Cross are widely recognized across many different cultures. Psychologists have informally suggested that these shared patterns are explained by Gestalt laws of grouping, but there have been no systematic attempts to catalog asterisms that recur across cultures or to explain the perceptual basis of these groupings. Here, we compiled data from 27 cultures around the world and found that a simple computational model of perceptual grouping accounts for many of the recurring cross-cultural asterisms. Our results suggest that basic perceptual principles account for more of the structure of asterisms across cultures than previously acknowledged and highlight ways in which specific cultures depart from this shared baseline.

參考文獻：Kemp, C., Hamacher, D. W., Little, D. R., & Cropper, S. J. (2022). Perceptual Grouping Explains Similarities in Constellations Across Cultures. Psychological Science, 33(3), 354–363. https://doi.org/10.1177/09567976211044157

3. 數字時代的行為一致性

從數字足跡中推測人格主要集中在特質層面的行為穩定性上，而沒有考慮情境依賴性。本研究用二手數據(五個數據集)重複了一項個體內部一致性的經典研究，其中包含780人28692天的智能手機使用情況。通過應用程序測量拿起頻率和使用時間，本研究發現，智能手機的日常使用情況在個體內比在個體間更一致(d > 1.46)。使用6天的行為數據對隨機森林模型進行訓練，該模型在測試數據中對780個用戶進行了識別，拿起頻率的預測準確率為35.8%，使用時間的預測準確率為38.5%。當預測前10名的用戶(即前1%)時，這一數字分別增加到73.5%和75.3%。因此，數字生活中存在依賴情境的行為穩定性，其獨特性帶來了機會也帶來了隱私風險。

Efforts to infer personality from digital footprints have focused on behavioral stability at the trait level without considering situational dependency. We repeated a classic study of intraindividual consistency with secondary data (five data sets) containing 28,692 days of smartphone usage from 780 people. Using per-app measures of pickup frequency and usage duration, we found that profiles of daily smartphone usage were significantly more consistent when taken from the same user than from different users (d > 1.46). Random-forest models trained on 6 days of behavior identified each of the 780 users in test data with 35.8% accuracy for pickup frequency and 38.5% accuracy for duration frequency. This increased to 73.5% and 75.3%, respectively, when success was taken as the user appearing in the top 10 predictions (i.e., top 1%). Thus, situation-dependent stability in behavior is present in our digital lives, and its uniqueness provides both opportunities and risks to privacy.

參考文獻：Shaw, H., Taylor, P. J., Ellis, D. A., & Conchie, S. M. (2022). Behavioral Consistency in the Digital Age. Psychological Science, 33(3), 364–370. https://doi.org/10.1177/09567976211040491

4. 精確數字概念受限於言語計數範圍

以往研究表明，大於4的數字的心理表徵取決於口頭計數的順序(例如，「1，2，3…」)。然而，這些發現仍然存在爭議，因為它們是在完全不同的語言和文化間比較得出的。本研究在一個單一的群體中(玻利維亞的齊曼人)測試了語言在數字概念中的作用。在這個群體中，對數字詞的認識在成年個體間有差異。本研究使用了一個新的數據分析模型來量化參與者(N = 30)在一個簡單的數字匹配任務中從精確的數字表示切換到近似數字表示的時間點。結果表明，這些行為切換點是受參與者的言語計數範圍的限制；他們對精確數字的表徵僅限於他們所知道的數字。超過這個範圍，他們就會採用近似的數字。這些結果解決了以往研究結果的相互矛盾的說法，並提供了明確的證據，表明大的精確數字概念是由語言賦能的。

Previous findings suggest that mentally representing exact numbers larger than four depends on a verbal count routine (e.g., 「one, two, three . . .」). However, these findings are controversial because they rely on comparisons across radically different languages and cultures. We tested the role of language in number concepts within a single population—the Tsimane』 of Bolivia—in which knowledge of number words varies across individual adults. We used a novel data-analysis model to quantify the point at which participants (N = 30) switched from exact to approximate number representations during a simple numerical matching task. The results show that these behavioral switch points were bounded by participants』 verbal count ranges; their representations of exact cardinalities were limited to the number words they knew. Beyond that range, they resorted to numerical approximation. These results resolve competing accounts of previous findings and provide unambiguous evidence that large exact number concepts are enabled by language.

參考文獻：Pitt, B., Gibson, E., & Piantadosi, S. T. (2022). Exact Number Concepts Are Limited to the Verbal Count Range. Psychological Science, 33(3), 371–381. https://doi.org/10.1177/09567976211034502

5. 表現得像嬰兒潮一代？過去半個世紀成人人格軌跡的出生隊列差異

社會和發展理論普遍認為，人格存在着巨大的代際差異。然而，支持承認大五人格特質的歷史變化，特別是發展性變化的證據很少。本研究追蹤了西雅圖縱向研究中4732名成人參與者(年齡：M=52.93歲，SD=16.69；53%為女性)50年來的人格軌跡(生於1883-1976)。多層次模型顯示了人格歷史變化的證據：在56歲時，較晚出生的群組比較早出生的群組表現出較低的成熟相關特徵(宜人性和神經質)和較高的代理相關特徵(外向性和開放性)。在年輕人中，宜人性和神經質的歷史變化更為明顯，但開放性的變化則不太明顯。同輩變化並無明顯差異，只在宜人性中方面被觀察到；個體內部的增長在較晚出生的隊列中更為明顯。本研究提供了第一個關於大五人格在整個成年期歷史性變化的證據，並指出了延遲的社會投資和成熟效應的作用。

Society and developmental theory generally assume that there are wide generational differences in personality. Yet evidence showing historical change in the levels of adult Big Five traits is scarce and particularly so for developmental change. We tracked adult trajectories of personality in 4,732 participants (age: M = 52.93 years, SD = 16.69; 53% female) from the Seattle Longitudinal Study (born 1883–1976) across 50 years. Multilevel models revealed evidence for historical change in personality: At age 56, later-born cohorts exhibited lower levels of maturity-related traits (agreeableness and neuroticism) and higher levels of agency-related traits (extraversion and openness) than earlier-born cohorts. Historical changes in agreeableness and neuroticism were more pronounced among young adults, but changes in openness were less pronounced. Cohort differences in change were rare and were observed only for agreeableness; within-person increases were more pronounced among later-born cohorts. Our results yield the first evidence for historical change in the Big Five across adulthood and point to the roles of delayed social-investment and maturity effects.

參考文獻：Brandt, N. D., Drewelies, J., Willis, S. L., Schaie, K. W., Ram, N., Gerstorf, D., & Wagner, J. (2022). Acting Like a Baby Boomer? Birth-Cohort Differences in Adults』 Personality Trajectories During the Last Half a Century. Psychological Science, 33(3), 382–396. https://doi.org/10.1177/09567976211037971

6. 「機會均等的混蛋」辯護：粗魯會掩蓋性別偏見

要解決性別歧視，人們必須首先認識到它。本研究發現了一個使性別歧視難以被識別的障礙：對男性的無禮。本研究發現，如果一個性別歧視者對男性無禮，觀察者會判斷他的性別歧視程度較低。這是因為對男性的無禮造成了性別盲的錯覺。本研究通過五項預註冊的研究測量了這一現象，參與者為在線成人參與者和來自職業學校的成人學生(total N = 4663)。這一歸因存在問題，因為性別歧視和粗魯並不相互排斥。對女性持有性別歧視觀念的男性可以，也經常對其他男性粗魯。這一歸因還阻止了觀察者對性別歧視者的責任追究。因此，對男性的無禮行為使性別歧視者有了合理的推諉理由。它保護了他們，並妨礙了解決性別歧視所需的第一個感知步驟。

To address sexism, people must first recognize it. In this research, we identified a barrier that makes sexism hard to recognize: rudeness toward men. We found that observers judge a sexist perpetrator as less sexist if he is rude toward men. This occurs because rudeness toward men creates the illusion of gender blindness. We documented this phenomenon in five preregistered studies consisting of online adult participants and adult students from professional schools (total N = 4,663). These attributions are problematic because sexism and rudeness are not mutually exclusive. Men who hold sexist beliefs about women can be—and often are—rude toward other men. These attributions also discourage observers from holding perpetrators accountable for gender bias. Thus, rudeness toward men gives sexist perpetrators plausible deniability. It protects them and prevents the first perceptual step necessary to address sexism.

參考文獻：Belmi, P., Jun, S., & Adams, G. S. (2022). The 「Equal-Opportunity Jerk」 Defense: Rudeness Can Obfuscate Gender Bias. Psychological Science, 33(3), 397–411. https://doi.org/10.1177/09567976211040495

7. 對右側背外側前額葉皮層的干擾使權力持有者對誘惑性賄賂的抵抗力降低

賄賂是一種常見的腐敗形式，發生在賄賂者違背道德以獲得有利結果時。儘管行為科學已經對賄賂進行了廣泛的研究，但對其潛在的神經生物學基礎仍然知之甚少。本研究採用經顱直流電刺激(tDCS)，結合一個新的範式(N = 119)，研究右背外側前額葉皮層(rDLPFC)的干擾是否會改變權力持有者的受賄決定。當tDCS擾亂rDLPFC，且賄賂的相對價值增加時，參與者更願意接受賄賂。這一tDCS引發的效應不能用其他測量的變化來解釋。對模型的分析進一步顯示，這種神經調節改變了個體關於可以通過受賄為自己謀取利益的考慮、重塑了對自己和賄賂者之間分配不平等的考慮，從而影響了隨後的決定。這些發現揭示了rDLPFC在調控腐敗行為方面的因果作用。

Bribery is a common form of corruption that takes place when a briber suborns a power holder to achieve an advantageous outcome at the cost of moral transgression. Although bribery has been extensively investigated in the behavioral sciences, its underlying neurobiological basis remains poorly understood. Here, we employed transcranial direct-current stimulation (tDCS) in combination with a novel paradigm (N = 119 adults) to investigate whether disruption of right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (rDLPFC) causally changed bribe-taking decisions of power holders. Perturbing rDLPFC via tDCS specifically made participants more willing to take bribes as the relative value of the offer increased. This tDCS-induced effect could not be explained by changes in other measures. Model-based analyses further revealed that such neural modulation alters the concern for generating profits for oneself via taking bribes and reshapes the concern for the distribution inequity between oneself and the briber, thereby influencing the subsequent decisions. These findings reveal a causal role of rDLPFC in modulating corrupt behavior.

參考文獻：Hu, Y., Philippe, R., Guigon, V., Zhao, S., Derrington, E., Corgnet, B., Bonaiuto, J. J., & Dreher, J.-C. (2022). Perturbation of Right Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex Makes Power Holders Less Resistant to Tempting Bribes. Psychological Science, 33(3), 412–423. https://doi.org/10.1177/09567976211042379

8. 實驗啟動依戀安全感對年輕人和老年人純音聽力閾值的影響

依戀安全感與放鬆的探索、開放性和對新信息的注意正相關。本研究探討了在情境中引入依戀安全感(安全啟動)是否能改善年輕人和老年人的聽力。在研究1中，參與者(29名年輕人，30名老年人)進行了兩次標準化的純音測聽閾值測試。在安全啟動條件下，整個任務過程中，都呈現了能增強參與者安全感的圖片。在控制組中，用一張陌生人照片(在性別、年齡和面部表情方面匹配)作中性的刺激。研究2(14個年輕人，14個老年人)幾乎與研究一相同，但進行了預註冊，且控制條件下的刺激是一個圓。在這兩項研究中，參與者在安全啟動條件下表現更好(聽力閾值更低)。本研究首先發現依戀安全感能改善感知覺，這些結果對理論和臨床聽力測試都有意義。

Attachment security has consistently been found to correlate with relaxed exploration, openness, and mindful attention to incoming information. The present studies explored whether contextually infusing a sense of attachment security (security priming) can improve hearing in young and older adults. In Study 1, participants (29 young, 30 older) performed a standardized pure-tone audiometric-thresholds test twice. In the security-priming condition, a picture of a participant’s security-enhancing figure was presented throughout the task. In the control condition, a picture of an unknown person (matched in sex, age, and facial expression) was used as a neutral prime. Study 2 (14 young, 14 older) was almost identical, except that it was preregistered and the neutral prime was a circle. In both studies, participants performed better (had lower hearing thresholds) in the security-priming condition. The current study is the first to show that attachment security improves sensory perception, and these results have meaningful implications for theory and clinical hearing tests.

參考文獻：Nagar, S., Mikulincer, M., Nitsan, G., & Ben-David, B. M. (2022). Safe and Sound: The Effects of Experimentally Priming the Sense of Attachment Security on Pure-Tone Audiometric Thresholds Among Young and Older Adults. Psychological Science, 33(3), 424–432. https://doi.org/10.1177/09567976211042008

9. 道德框架具有說服力並使態度道德化；非道德框架具有說服力並使態度非道德化。

道德框架和重塑策略能夠說服持有道德態度(即有道德基礎態度)的人。然而，這些策略可能會產生意想不到的副作用。它們有可能使個體的態度進一步道德化，從而降低他們對問題妥協的意願。在三項實驗研究中(參與者均為美國人，研究1：N=2,151，研究2：N=1,590，研究3：N=1,015)，本研究使用了反對新的大數據技術(犯罪監控技術和招聘算法)的說服信息(道德的、不道德的和控制組)。研究一致發現，道德框架具有說服力，使人們的態度道德化，而非道德框架也具有說服力，使人們的態度非道德化。道德框架也降低了人們的妥協意願，並減少了妥協行為。探索性分析表明，憤怒和厭惡的情緒可能會推動道德化，而認為技術是昂貴的可能會推動非道德化。這些發現意味着道德框架會增加和鞏固道德分歧，而不是彌合這些分歧。

Moral framing and reframing strategies persuade people holding moralized attitudes (i.e., attitudes having a moral basis). However, these strategies may have unintended side effects: They have the potential to moralize people’s attitudes further and as a consequence lower their willingness to compromise on issues. Across three experimental studies with adult U.S. participants (Study 1: N = 2,151, Study 2: N = 1,590, Study 3: N = 1,015), we used persuasion messages (moral, nonmoral, and control) that opposed new big-data technologies (crime-surveillance technologies and hiring algorithms). We consistently found that moral frames were persuasive and moralized people’s attitudes, whereas nonmoral frames were persuasive and de-moralized people’s attitudes. Moral frames also lowered people’s willingness to compromise and reduced behavioral indicators of compromise. Exploratory analyses suggest that feelings of anger and disgust may drive moralization, whereas perceiving the technologies to be financially costly may drive de-moralization. The findings imply that use of moral frames can increase and entrench moral divides rather than bridge them.

參考文獻：Kodapanakkal, R. I., Brandt, M. J., Kogler, C., & van Beest, I. (2022). Moral Frames Are Persuasive and Moralize Attitudes; Nonmoral Frames Are Persuasive and De-Moralize Attitudes. Psychological Science, 33(3), 433–449. https://doi.org/10.1177/09567976211040803

10. 信念強度指導信息搜索

關於個體如何評估和搜索信息的理論有一個共同的假設，即信念會引起對信息價值的感知。然而，很少有研究直接探索影響信息搜索行為的搜索前過程。本研究測量了搜索前的信念更新對信息來源的感知價值的影響。招募大學生完成了一個假設檢驗、醫療診斷的任務。本實驗使用了具有同等客觀信息價值的醫學測試，然後再指出症狀，旨在改變對不同疾病假設的信念強度。觀察到的測試選擇模式表明，疾病假設信念的變化導致了測試偏好的系統性和可預測變化，在此被稱為假設指導下的搜索原則。本研究還展現了搜索前過程(如假設生成和工作記憶能力)和任務變量(如時間壓力)如何影響隨後的信息搜索。

Theories of how people value and search for information share the assumption that beliefs give rise to the perceived value of information. However, few studies have directly addressed the pre-search processes that influence information-foraging behavior. This experiment examined the influence of pre-search belief updating on the perceived value of information sources. A sample of college students completed a hypothesis-testing, medical-diagnosis task. The experiment used medical tests with equal objective informative value before unveiling a presenting symptom intended to alter the strength of belief in different disease hypotheses. The observed patterns of test selection suggest that changes in beliefs about disease hypotheses result in systematic and predictable changes in test preference—a notion we refer to as the principle of hypothesis-guided search. We also present a simulation of how pre-search processes (e.g., hypothesis generation and working memory capacity) and task variables (e.g., time pressure) influence subsequent information search.

參考文獻：Illingworth, D. A., & Thomas, R. P. (2022). Strength of Belief Guides Information Foraging. Psychological Science, 33(3), 450–462. https://doi.org/10.1177/09567976211043425

11. 疼痛作為社會粘合劑：預註冊的對Bastian等(2014)研究實驗二的復現

Bastian等(2014)發現，分享痛苦的經歷會促進隨後的群體間合作。在Bastian等的第二個實驗中，62名參與者被分配到每組2至6人的小組。他們執行了兩個痛苦或無痛苦的任務，然後玩一個經濟遊戲。本研究復現了該實驗，一個是未預註冊的預研究(N = 153, 來自捷克共和國的學生)，一個是預註冊的直接復現(N = 158,來自斯洛伐克的學生)。與原實驗的重要區別是：(a)平衡了各條件下的小組性別同質性；(b)每個小組的參與者數量固定為3人。本研究結果沒有發現分享痛苦對合作的相關影響。結果表明，在最初的研究中獲得的分享痛苦對合作的真實效應可能是被高估的，或者該影響在不同情況下並不普遍有效。

Bastian et al. (2014) found that sharing a painful experience promoted later intergroup cooperation. In Bastian et al.’s second experiment, 62 participants were assigned to groups of two to six people each. They performed either two painful or two painless tasks and then played an economic game. The present study consisted of two replications of the experiment: The first was a nonpreregistered pilot study (N = 153 students from the Czech Republic), and the second was a preregistered direct replication (N = 158 students from Slovakia). Important deviations from the original procedure were that (a) gender homogeneity of the small groups was balanced across the conditions and (b) the number of participants in each small group was fixed at three. No relevant effect of shared pain on cooperation emerged. The findings indicate that the true effect of shared pain on cooperation obtained in the original study may have been an overestimate or that the effect is not generally valid across various contexts.

參考文獻：Prochazka, J., Parilakova, K., Rudolf, P., Bruk, V., Jungwirthova, R., Fejtova, S., Masaryk, R., & Vaculik, M. (2022). Pain as Social Glue: A Preregistered Direct Replication of Experiment 2 of Bastian et al. (2014). Psychological Science, 33(3), 463–473. https://doi.org/10.1177/09567976211040745

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